18.4 Social Classes Three Thousand Years Ago
We may summarize the discussion of the last two chapters here by making a
list of the chief elements in this complicated accumulation of human beings
which made up the later Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations of from two
thousand five hundred to three thousand years ago. These, elements grew up
and became distinct one from another in the great river valleys of the world
in the course of five or six thousand years. They developed mental
dispositions and traditions and attitudes of thought one to another. The
civilization in which we live today is simply carrying on and still further
developing and working out and rearranging these relationships. This is the
world from which we inherit. It is only by the attentive study of their
origins that we can detach ourselves from the prejudices and immediate ideas
of the particular class to which we may belong, and begin to understand the
social and political questions of our own time.
(1) First, then, came the priesthood, the temple system, which was the
nucleus and the guiding intelligence about which the primitive civilizations
grew. It was still in these later days a great power in the world, the chief
repository of knowledge and tradition, an influence over the lives of every
one, and a binding force to hold the community together. But it was no longer
all-powerful, because its-nature made it conservative and inadaptable. It no
longer monopolized knowledge nor initiated fresh ideas. Learning had already
leaked out to other less pledged and controlled people, who thought for
themselves. About the temple system were grouped its priests and priestesses,
its scribes, its physicians, its magicians, its lay brethren, treasurers,
managers, directors, and the like. It owned great properties and often
hoarded huge treasures.
(2) Over against the priesthood, and originally, arising out of it, was the
court system, headed by a king or a “king of kings”, who was in later
Assyria and Babylonia a sort of captain and lay controller of affairs, and in
Egypt a god-man, who had released himself from the control of his priests.
About the monarch were accumulated his scribes, counsellors, record keepers,
agents, captains, and guards. Many of his officials, particularly his
provincial officials, had great subordinate establishments, and were
constantly tending to become independent. The nobility of the old river
valley civilizations arose out of the court system. It was, therefore, a
different thing in its origins from the nobility of the early Aryans, which
was a republican nobility of elders and leading men.
(3) At the base of the social pyramid was the large and most necessary class
in the community, the tillers of the soil . Their status varied from age to
age and in different lands; they were free peasants paying taxes, or serfs of
the god, or serfs or tenants of king or noble, or of a private owner, paying
him a rent; in most cases tax or rent was paid in produce. In the states of
the river valleys they were, high cultivators, cultivating comparatively
small holdings; they lived together for safety in villages, and had a common
interest in maintaining their irrigation channels and a sense of community in
their village life. The cultivation of the soil is an exacting occupation;
the seasons and the harvest sunsets will not wait for men; children can be
utilized at an early age, and so the Cultivator class is generally a poorly
educated, close-toiling class, superstitious by reason of ignorance and the
uncertainty of the seasons, ill-informed and easily put upon, It is capable
at times of great passive resistance, but it has no purpose in its round but
crops and crops, to keep out of debt and hoard against bad times. So it has
remained to our own days over the greater part of Europe and Asia.
(4) Differing widely in origin and quality from the tillers of the soil was
the artisan class. At first, this was probably in part a town-slave class,
in part it consisted of peasants who had specialized upon a craft. But in
developing an art and mystery of its own, a technique that had to be learnt
before it could be practised, each sort of craft probably developed a certain
independence and a certain sense of community of its own. The artisans were
able to get together and discuss their affairs more readily than the toilers
on the land, and they were able to form guilds to restrict output, maintain
rates of pay, and protect their common interest.
(5) As the power of the Babylonian rulers spread out beyond the original
areas of good husbandry into grazing regions and less fertile districts, a
class of herdsmen came into existence. In the case of Babylonia these were
nomadic Semites, the Bedouin, like the Bedouin of today. They probably grazed
their flocks over great areas much as the sheep ranchers of California do.
They were paid and esteemed much more highly than the husbandmen.
(6) The first merchants in the world were ship owners like the people of
Tyre and Cnossos, or nomads who carried and traded goods as they wandered
between one area of primitive civilization and another. In the Babylonian and
Assyrian world the traders were predominantly the Semitic Arameans, the
ancestors of the modern Syrians. They became a distinct factor in the life of
the community; they formed great households of their own. Usury developed
largely in the last thousand years B.C. Traders needed accommodation;
cultivators wished to anticipate their crops. Sayce (op. cit.) gives an
account of the Babylonian banking-house of Egibi, which lasted through
several generations and outlived the Chaldean Empire.
(7) A class of small retailers, one must suppose, came into existence with
the complication of society during the later days of the first empires, but
it was not probably of any great importance.
- A growing class of independent property owners.
(9) As the amenities of life increased, there grew up in the court, temples,
and prosperous private houses a class of domestic servants, slaves or freed
slaves, or young peasants taken into the household.
(10) Gang workers — These were prisoners of war or debt slaves, or
impressed or deported men.
(11) Mercenary soldiers — These were also often captive or impressed men.
Sometimes they were enlisted from friendly foreign populations in which the
military spirit still prevailed.
- Seamen.
In modern political and economic discussions we are apt to talk rather glibly
of “labour”. Much has been made of the solidarity of labour and its sense
of community. It is well to note that in these first civilizations, what we
speak of as “labour” is represented by five distinct classes dissimilar in
origin, traditions, and outlook-namely, classes 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, and the oar-tugging part of 12. The “solidarity of labour” is, we shall find when we come
to study the mechanical revolution of the nineteenth century A.D., a new idea
and a new possibility in human affairs.
18.4 Social Classes Three Thousand Years Ago¶
We may summarize the discussion of the last two chapters here by making a list of the chief elements in this complicated accumulation of human beings which made up the later Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations of from two thousand five hundred to three thousand years ago. These, elements grew up and became distinct one from another in the great river valleys of the world in the course of five or six thousand years. They developed mental dispositions and traditions and attitudes of thought one to another. The civilization in which we live today is simply carrying on and still further developing and working out and rearranging these relationships. This is the world from which we inherit. It is only by the attentive study of their origins that we can detach ourselves from the prejudices and immediate ideas of the particular class to which we may belong, and begin to understand the social and political questions of our own time.
(1) First, then, came the priesthood, the temple system, which was the nucleus and the guiding intelligence about which the primitive civilizations grew. It was still in these later days a great power in the world, the chief repository of knowledge and tradition, an influence over the lives of every one, and a binding force to hold the community together. But it was no longer all-powerful, because its-nature made it conservative and inadaptable. It no longer monopolized knowledge nor initiated fresh ideas. Learning had already leaked out to other less pledged and controlled people, who thought for themselves. About the temple system were grouped its priests and priestesses, its scribes, its physicians, its magicians, its lay brethren, treasurers, managers, directors, and the like. It owned great properties and often hoarded huge treasures.
(2) Over against the priesthood, and originally, arising out of it, was the court system, headed by a king or a “king of kings”, who was in later Assyria and Babylonia a sort of captain and lay controller of affairs, and in Egypt a god-man, who had released himself from the control of his priests. About the monarch were accumulated his scribes, counsellors, record keepers, agents, captains, and guards. Many of his officials, particularly his provincial officials, had great subordinate establishments, and were constantly tending to become independent. The nobility of the old river valley civilizations arose out of the court system. It was, therefore, a different thing in its origins from the nobility of the early Aryans, which was a republican nobility of elders and leading men.
(3) At the base of the social pyramid was the large and most necessary class in the community, the tillers of the soil . Their status varied from age to age and in different lands; they were free peasants paying taxes, or serfs of the god, or serfs or tenants of king or noble, or of a private owner, paying him a rent; in most cases tax or rent was paid in produce. In the states of the river valleys they were, high cultivators, cultivating comparatively small holdings; they lived together for safety in villages, and had a common interest in maintaining their irrigation channels and a sense of community in their village life. The cultivation of the soil is an exacting occupation; the seasons and the harvest sunsets will not wait for men; children can be utilized at an early age, and so the Cultivator class is generally a poorly educated, close-toiling class, superstitious by reason of ignorance and the uncertainty of the seasons, ill-informed and easily put upon, It is capable at times of great passive resistance, but it has no purpose in its round but crops and crops, to keep out of debt and hoard against bad times. So it has remained to our own days over the greater part of Europe and Asia.
(4) Differing widely in origin and quality from the tillers of the soil was the artisan class. At first, this was probably in part a town-slave class, in part it consisted of peasants who had specialized upon a craft. But in developing an art and mystery of its own, a technique that had to be learnt before it could be practised, each sort of craft probably developed a certain independence and a certain sense of community of its own. The artisans were able to get together and discuss their affairs more readily than the toilers on the land, and they were able to form guilds to restrict output, maintain rates of pay, and protect their common interest.
(5) As the power of the Babylonian rulers spread out beyond the original areas of good husbandry into grazing regions and less fertile districts, a class of herdsmen came into existence. In the case of Babylonia these were nomadic Semites, the Bedouin, like the Bedouin of today. They probably grazed their flocks over great areas much as the sheep ranchers of California do. They were paid and esteemed much more highly than the husbandmen.
(6) The first merchants in the world were ship owners like the people of Tyre and Cnossos, or nomads who carried and traded goods as they wandered between one area of primitive civilization and another. In the Babylonian and Assyrian world the traders were predominantly the Semitic Arameans, the ancestors of the modern Syrians. They became a distinct factor in the life of the community; they formed great households of their own. Usury developed largely in the last thousand years B.C. Traders needed accommodation; cultivators wished to anticipate their crops. Sayce (op. cit.) gives an account of the Babylonian banking-house of Egibi, which lasted through several generations and outlived the Chaldean Empire.
(7) A class of small retailers, one must suppose, came into existence with the complication of society during the later days of the first empires, but it was not probably of any great importance.
(9) As the amenities of life increased, there grew up in the court, temples, and prosperous private houses a class of domestic servants, slaves or freed slaves, or young peasants taken into the household.
(10) Gang workers — These were prisoners of war or debt slaves, or impressed or deported men.
(11) Mercenary soldiers — These were also often captive or impressed men. Sometimes they were enlisted from friendly foreign populations in which the military spirit still prevailed.
In modern political and economic discussions we are apt to talk rather glibly of “labour”. Much has been made of the solidarity of labour and its sense of community. It is well to note that in these first civilizations, what we speak of as “labour” is represented by five distinct classes dissimilar in origin, traditions, and outlook-namely, classes 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, and the oar-tugging part of 12. The “solidarity of labour” is, we shall find when we come to study the mechanical revolution of the nineteenth century A.D., a new idea and a new possibility in human affairs.